How Class and Classicism in America Shaped and Defined American Politics and Government Essay

Class and Classism is a significant dilemma in several parts of the world. Classism was initially created by Servius Tullius in one of the six orders that he used to divide the Roman people for taxation purposes. Classism represents a discriminatory attitude based on the distinctions derived from economic or social classes. Perhaps, the most elusive socio-economic and political ills confronting U.S today is the issue of class. The concerns and problems of class struggle cut across the social dimensions of ethnicity, race, and political affiliation, and educational background, national and geographic origin. Domhoff, (1977) defined class as the status a group, or an individual achieves by virtue of its economic strength, the power to affect change and the influence of other groups in its community of choice. Therefore, the issues surrounding class and classism through hierarchy of â€Å"Haves† and the â€Å"Have nots†, the promise, myth, and dogma of individualism in U.S , and the systematic oppression of subordinate societies have brought myriad changes in the politics and governance of United States. Domhoff, (1977) argues that class is not a new phenomenon. Nor class within the policy. Thus, class within the American society has existed for centuries. Since the beginning of men, you have always had the have and have nots. Association of class within the United States was in existence prior to the creation of the Declaration of Independence, United States Constitution and U.S. Federal Bureaucracy. It started when the British Monarchy set up their government and society structures their colonies.This paper will discuss and review how the Founding Fathers being the lesser member of the smaller group, which for the purpose of the paper are defined as the ruling class, were able to collectively shape and develop social and political agendas through collective action, and as a result, disenfranchised the greater members of society. Furthermore, this pa per explores how the Collective Action of Groups Theory (Olson, 1979) helped to shape the discourse and thoughts of the Founding Fathers on social and political ideologies, which in turn, played a critical role in the creation of the United States. Moreover, more importantly, how the Founding Father’s ideologies on class impacted individuals within particular classes views on their own political affiliations and the United States Government. Defining Class in America’s Society When questioned about the needs of the working class individuals during 1988 presidential campaign, George Bush insisted that class was a â€Å"European thing† and that the Americans would never be divided by class. Although the critic, that views America as a dominant culture, observes that it is a classless society, most Americans recognize that deep class separates and divides them. The structure of class has been interwoven with the culture of the United States and its political system for well over two centuries, and has shaped the way in which people view their place in society and make their political decisions. The leading Founders thoughts and ideas have played a significant role for this to occur. The Founding Fathers were the ruling class at the time of the when the Declaration of Independence was written, the American Revolution was fought, the enactment of the U.S. Constitution and the development U.S. Federal Bureaucracy. The ruling class is defined as a social c lass of a given society that decides upon and sets that society’s political policy by mandating that there is one such particular class in the given society, and then appointing itself as that class (Domhoff, 1977). Karl Marx in his writings defined these men as distinguished and the educated who were dominant in their communities and states, and also prominent in national affairs (Oliver, 1984). This would explain why as a collective group, these men were able to achieve a certain level of success and in turn dominate society. One of the most well documented correlations in social science are the positive correlation between socioeconomic status and all forms of political and organizational participation (Oliver, 1984). This also explains why the Founding Fathers voted only to allow white male property owners the right to vote, whom at the time made up 10 to 16 percent of the nation’s population (Rowen, 2014). Their decision to not allow poor white men, women, and min orities the right to vote aligns with Olson’s Collective Action Theory. As the small group, they made a decision to block a public right from the majority. Voting in most terms would be considered a non-rivalrous public good (Olson, 1971). Rosenberg, (2008) writes that in economics, rivalry is a characteristic of a good. A good can be placed along a continuum ranging from rivalrous (rival) to non-rival. The range is based on consumption and the price to produce the good. Since voting like the air was a considered a freedom, they should have quickly decided to make it a non-rivalrous public good. However, by blocking the right to vote from 90 percent of the people in the country the Founding Fathers made it rivalries (Zweig, 2000). Whereas, they placed a cost on voting that owned land.These men may have disagreed and to an extent attempted to disassociate their ideologies and politics from the British Monarchy, but their actions and thoughts conveyed a strong similarity. By disenfranchising 90 percent of society, they cast themselves and their peers as th e ruling and dominating class. However, Zweig (2000) observes that in terms of experiences with other cultures, this is all they knew. Dr. Morris Massey, head of the psychiatry department at a Texas university, defines this behavior as â€Å"You Are What You Were When You Were Then† (Massey & Magnetic Video Corporation, 1976). Massey’s theory is that identity is primarily determined by the things that affect life up to the age of 10. Their behavior and how they made their decisions as a collective group also aligns with Henri Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory that states a person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership(s). Tajfel, (1979) proposed that the groups (e.g. social class, family, football team, etc.), which people belonged to, was an important source of pride and self-esteem. Groups give us a sense of social identity: a sense of belonging to the social world. Since these men experienced the rule of British Monchary that was entrenc hed in class for a vast majority of their life, it is highly probable they would create a system that placed individuals within a class. This would explain why these men used land as the defining factor. This provided them with a determining factor to define a class among all people.You would also wonder how these men could function in such a myopic way as it related to freedom and the rights of others? How could they outwardly caste others in a system that they so disliked? Their behavior at the time could be attributed to their socialization. Arnet, (1995) describes socialization as the process in which people acquire the behaviors and beliefs of the social world that are culture in which they live. Culturally, these men were accustomed to women being in subservient roles, minorities being used as slaves, and poor white people being indentured servants. Thomas Jefferson stated â€Å"The appointment of a woman to office is an innovation for which the public is not prepared, nor Ià ¢â‚¬  (Arnet, 1995). His sentiments at the time were most likely not an anomaly, but the norm. These men were socialized to believe their rights were above others (except for the ruling class of Britan). A similar message was conveyed in James Madision’s Federalist 10. Madison observed that the diversity in the faculties of men, from which the rights of property originate, is not less an insuperable obstacle to a uniformity of interests (Arnet, 1995). The protection of these faculties is the first object of government. From the protection of different and unequal faculties of acquiring property, the possession of different degrees and kinds of property immediately results; and from the influence of these on the sentiments and views of the respective proprietors, ensues a division of the society into different interests and parties (Massey, 1976). However, most common and durable source of factions has been the various and unequal distribution of property. Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination. A landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, with many lesser interests, grow up of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them into different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views. The regulation of these various and interfering interests forms the principal task of modern legislation and involves the spirit of party and faction in the necessary and ordinary operations of the government (Massey, 1976). In his writings, Madison is acknowledging and justifying a class system based on assets and wealth. He is very clear on his position, in which the government is set-up to protect the owners of property and in turn, their wealth, which is interesting because this is counter opposite to Paine’s opinion on non-equalizers (family, land, and money) (Massey, 1976).Jefferson and Madisions behavior at the time align with Arnett’s definition of narrow socialization. Arnett defines narrow socialization as holding obedience and conformity to the highest values and discourage deviation from cultural expectations—again, not just through family socialization but through other sources of socialization as well. Based on the behavior of the Founding Fathers they seem more committed to conformity and obedience rather than challenging and open thinking environment. The creation of the U.S. Constitution is a perfect example. In creating the U.S. Constitution, the Founders sought to limit the power of the federal government and to protect (not grant) the natural rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Their focus and behavior were all based on their past experiences with the British Monarchy (Zinn, 2003). In reality, they were rebelling against a system that controlled and disenfranchised them, but they went forth in constructing a system that disenfranchised almost 90 percent of its citizens and empowered 10 percent (based on the voting law). Ideology of Classism Kadi, (1996) defined classism as a prejudice or discrimination on the basis of social class. It includes individual attitudes, behaviors, systems of policies, and practices that are set up to benefit the upper class at the expense of the lower class. A person’s economic class is neither real bad. It is just a reality. However, what is of interests is how individuals within their class act and behave as it relates to their class standing. Iwith reference to Olson’s theory of the Founding Fathers, it is apparent their small group over several years acted to further their interest (Kadi, 996). This has been clearly documented prior to, during, and after the American Revolutionary War. This was accomplished by strategically defining and casting people within certain classes, and using the government structure along with political and cultural strategies to achieve their objectives. This behavior aligns with Olson and his thoughts on the ability of smaller groups to manipula te larger groups. And through this manipulation the larger group would bear a disproportionate share of the burden (Barrow, 2014).According to Horowitz (2003), the Founding Fathers of the United States were clearly influenced by the British Monarchy, and their caste system. Class was a staple part of the British way of life. The British society was divided into three main groups of classes: upper class, middle class, and the lower or working class. The upper classes consisted of people with inherited wealth and include some of the oldest families, with many of them being titled aristocrats. The upper classes were defined by their title, but also by their education, and their pastimes which included the traditional sporting life involving hunting, shooting and fishing, as well as a great deal of horse riding for both leisure and as a competitive pursuit. The middle classes were the majority of the population and included industrialists, professionals, businesspeople and shop owners. And, the working class people were mostly agricultural, mine and factory workers (Barrow 2014).Because of the British Monarchy role in the history of the United States, it was a natural evolution for the Founding Fathers to borrow and blend new and old concepts pertaining to class (Daniel Carpenter). This is not to say that some of the Founding Fathers were not against the concept of class. Rather, it clearly highlighted in the writings of Thomas Paine. Thomas Paine published his book Rights of Man, in 1791, and stated that all men were equal and any non-equalizer such as money, power, prestige or titles, were wrong. Paine, (1791) felt that governments should reflect social equality; however, it was clear in the creation of the U. S. Federal Bureaucracy that the equalizers that Paine and others were against became and still exists in the United States politics and government.The Influence of Class in America’s HistoryZinn, (2003) asserts that the review of American history pr ovides insights on why the nation is obsessed with wealth and class. The Founding Fathers served as an example for the lower class on how they used their Collective Action as a group to gain benefits and control over the country. The Founding Fathers clearly knew what they represented to the general public. Therefore, they used their wealth and class to manipulate and gain more power (Zinn, 2003). This manipulation of power was happening prior, during and after the revolutionary war. Zinn in his book â€Å"History is a Weapon† inscribes tha the individual that initially got recruited to the colonial militia were overall â€Å"hallmarks of respectability or at least of full citizenship† in their communities (Zinn, 2003). However, desperation resulted to recruiting fewer whites that were respectable in the society. According to Kim and National Bureau of Economic Research, (2007) the study of Massachusetts and Virginia provided for drafting â€Å"strollers† (vagra nts) into the colonial militia. Indeed, observations by Kim et al. (2007) concludes that the military became a place of promise for the powerless and subordinate individuals, which might rise to the rank, get financial rewards and alter their social status. The behavior of the Founding Fathers also aligns with cultural hegemony theory that describes the domination of a culturally diverse society by the ruling class, who manipulate the culture of that society, the beliefs, explanations, perceptions, values, and mores, so that their ruling-class worldview becomes the worldview that is imposed and accepted as the cultural norm; as the universally valid dominant ideology that justifies the social, political, and economic status quo as natural, inevitable, perpetual and beneficial for everyone, rather than as artificial social constructs that benefit only the ruling class (National Archives, 2014). This ability to control and dupe the working and lower class was not by accident. The imagery of freedom, opportunity and wealth is a strong influence that has been used for centuries to induce the poor into submission. This was clearly the case during the Revolutionary War. Zinn documents a soldier’s response to why he joins the war. â€Å"I was a Shoemaker, & got my living by my Labor. When this Rebellion came on, I saw some of my Neighbors got into Commission, who were no better than myself. I was very ambitious, & did not like to see those Men above me. T was asked to enlist, as a private Soldier †¦ I offered to enlist upon having a Lieutenants Commission; which was granted. I imagined myself now in a way of Promotion: if I was killed in Battle, there would be an end of me, but if any Captain was killed, I should rise in Rank, & should still have a Chance to rise higher. These Sir! were the only Motives of my entering into the Service; for as to the Dispute between Great Britain & the Colonies, I know nothing of it †¦,† (Zinn, 2003). The question could be asked if this man were an anomaly. However, it is hard to dispute when you have Founding Fathers writing about the lack of commitment and passion from the soldiers. At the time, Alexander Hamilton was an aide to George Washington when he wrote:†. . . our countrymen have all the folly of the ass and all the passiveness of the sheep†¦. They are determined not to be free†¦. If we are saved, France and Spain must save us† (Hamilton, 2003).It was obvious the passion and commitment for change were not as significant for the poor and underclass. The soldiers were consistently quitting. Founding father John Adams’ estimated a third opposed, a third in support, a third neutral. So the nation was not squarely behind the decisions being made by the elite ruling class (Horowitz, 2003). So early in the history of this country’s history the various category/ groups had differing opinions on the directions of the country. One of the ways tha t the power owners or the ruling class addressed this issue was interesting, and also shows how the ruling class was committed to cultural hegemony as a collective group. Zinn, (2003) indicates that military conflict, by dominating everything in its time, made individuals take sides, lessened other issues, and forced people onto the revolution regime whose independence interests were very unclear. Additionally, Zinn believed that the political elites that handles power learned through the generations-consciously or not-that war provides them security against interior trouble (Cone, 1991). This mindset of the Founding Fathers during the revolutionary war is an example of how the Constructivist Theory works. According to him, the Constructivist Theory provides that the mechanism of learning is an active process characterized by the creation of meaning from diverse familiarities (Cone, 1991). Through their early experience with the war, it was clear that all of the white men were not functioning as a collective group. As the Collective Action Theory states, some individuals will support an initiative, some will sit on the fence, and some will not support it all. And, through rethinking how to get the non-participants involved through constructivist thinking the Founding Fathers begin to implement new tactics, such as force of serving in the military.Through military force prepara tion, power owners of the high class found a procedure of pushing neutral people into the periphery. For instance, in Connecticut, Cone (1991) observes, a law was passed that required military service of all males between sixteen and sixty. This he reports omitted certain Yale students and faculty, Negroes, government officials, Indians, ministers, and mulattos. Therefore, when an individual was put on duty, he or she could provide a substitute or get fined 5 pounds to abscond the duty. Consequently, when a total of eighteen men failed to report to military duty, they got jailed. However, they could only be released after pledging to fight in the war. Perhaps what appeared like military force democratization in modern times shows up as a completely different issue (Cone, 1991). That is, an approach of forcing massive defiant individuals to associate themselves with the national cause, and finally believe in it.The Constitutionalization and Classism in AmericaJensen, (2012) writes th at during the United States Bicentennial Constitution, it is accurate to argue on the political and economic wisdom of the United States Founding Fathers. Historically, there is no constitution in the world that established successful and durable economic democracy than the United States. However, economy is presented in the political inclinations, and the enormous success of the economy of the United States was independent of the political system. Indeed, the current economic issues in the United States might as a result of the failure of the political wisdom to follow the guides of the founding fathers based on the concept of class. Jensen, (2012) further elaborates that the American Founding Fathers developed the constitution in order to serve the economic interest of a specific class of individuals, which are the capitalists. According to him, the Constitution documented by the founding fathers was based on the concept of class as it protected the economic rights of the capitali sts. Multiple aspects of the constitution mention aspects of economic and financial matters that were put in place to secure economic functioning that would benefit the investors (Jensen, 2012).Furthermore, the Founding Fathers wrote the Constitution to provide a favorable national economic environment in which businesses could thrive. To counter this, a central authority, the United States Congress, were authorized to control the foreign commerce and interstate, the coinage of money, federal tax collection, patents and copyrights and the defense of states. Besides, the constitution supported sanctity of contracts, property rights and the due process of law. Illustratively, the Supreme Court decisions, for instance, Dartmouth v. Woodward (1819) provided that the judiciary supported a business friendly environment (Jensen, 2012). Although the United States Constitution assisted in easing the concern of the business majority, it did not provide complete economic issues of the United S tates. Therefore, a national monetary system was founded to control the issues of debts. As such, the capitalists were provided with a favorable environment for conducting business that developed power over the subordinate society.In the modern society, Bishaw and Semega (2008) observes, the political campaigns provide a significant problem of financial resources. The technological changes have demanded that the politicians raise lots and lots of money. Not surprisingly, Young (2000) further writes that a system that heavily relies on financial contributions has tilted towards organizations and individuals that can give big. As such, the politicians get linked to the wealthy individuals or the capitalists in the society to provide financial sponsorship of their candidature. In turn, the politicians pass bills and laws that suit the interest of the few wealthy dignitaries in the American society. Indeed, politics in U.S has followed the footsteps of the constitution that protects the economic rights of few high-class individuals in the society that in turn fund politicians. As such, class in the American society continues to emerge with discrimination observable in the political interests and representations (Young, 2000). The issue of class has made America a nation where politicians serve the interest of the capitalist that forms the minority of the population hence ignoring 90 percent of the electorate. Furthermore, Arcs and Zimmerman, (2008) indicates that excessive reliance on the electorate system on financial capital also determines what kind of interests gets heard and what kind of policies are passed. Classism according to Arcs et al. (2008) appears to control politics in America with the capitalists funding politicians. Therefore, as money controls politics, the low social class hardly influences politics by voting or contacting their legislators that later amplifies the capitalist influences. Domhoff, (1977) highlights that the Commerce Clause of the Supreme Court provides opinion reflecting an apparent effort to modernize and rationalize the analytical framework for delineating the implied constraints imposed by the state legislation. According to him, the constitution articulated a set of coherent criteria controlling the validity of the state taxes on interstate commerce. Furthermore, the constitution discarded inconsistent doctrine with the set standards. In the context of state regulation, the constitution enunciated meaningful decisional principles governing commerce. According to the US Constitution, the commerce clause is a power granted by Congress, but not an express limitation on the state’s power to regulate the economy. However, the wealthy individuals often have the final say in the taxation policies that favors their business interests (Domhoff, 1977). As such, classism has made the wealthy individuals get heard in making policies such as taxation policies that altogether re-shapes the governance and polit ics of America. Therefore, the constitutional wisdom of the Founding Fathers is present today, and it has promoted classism that in turn affects the politics and governance in America. Class Today in America The primary institutionalization basis of classism is the economic system, Gilbert and Kahl (1993) indicates. Capitalism, Gilbert, and colleague, observes get structured based on classes that in turn influence the politics and governance of America. According to Gilbert et al. (1993), the three key institutions, that generate classes, are hierarchical organizations, private ownership, and capitalist division of labor. These institutions produce class-based systems of political dominion and subordination between the managers and the managed, the owners and those who do not own, and the professionals and these without professional credentials. Thus, the political dominion by these dominant groups means that the politicians must serve their economic interest in order to achieve their financial support. The economic production of the dominant groups requires government policies that emphasize on security and good governance to enable them reproduce their modes of production and distribut ion.Fast forward 239 years, and Americans are still grappling with class as it relates to all areas of society. It is still a challenge to address and discuss class as it relates to government, politics, and race within the country. This challenge can partly be laid at the hands of the Founding Fathers. Through cultural hegemony, they manipulated society to believe that â€Å"all† citizens were created equally and had a voice in the decisions being made within government (Gilbert and Kahl, 1993). But, within the same space they systematically defined what voices mattered by only allowing landowners the right to vote. This simplistic move set forth and defined the influence of class in the terms of money, assets, and influence. This also sets up the environment of social exclusion. Social exclusion, according to Hess (2006), is the process where individuals or a community are systematically partially or fully blocked from various opportunities, rights, and resources customaril y available to the society, and which is fundamental to social integration within that specific group (Hess, 2006). By excluding poor white men from voting, they intentionally manipulated the government structure to support their desires and interests at the cost of the 90 percent. Fast forward well over 239 years later, we have a new movement with protests being conducted across the country about the 1 percent ruling class (Paine, 1999). In direct approach, the phrase refers to income and wealth concentration among the top earning representing 1 percent and as well as a reflection of an opinion that 99 percent are paying heavily for the mistakes of a small minority within the upper class (Paine, 1999).Some may argue and contend that the law for non-votes was in existence for less than 60 years, and by 1850 allowed all white males were given the right to vote. However, scholars still questions on the number of generations that got impacted by the decision. Secondly it raises concern s about the influences it has in the current American society. Undeniably, Rowen, (2014) indicates that the United States of America is the world oldest and most esteemed democracy. However, the impacts of class according to him, in the society have led to pervasive and serious problems in its politics and government. The concept of classism, Rowen (2014) writes, has for the last half century promoted disgust among the Americans. Classism has reduced the trust of the public in the political institutions, elected officials, and increasingly becoming indifferent to democratic participation. Classism in America has reduced the levels of civic engagement and trust in government. David et al. (2009) highlights that activity such as voting, working on campaigns, contacting elected officials that depend upon democracy has significantly reduced over the past two generations. By virtue of class, the elected officials are considered a representative of few individuals rather than the electorate. Most Americans believe that politicians lie and pander to serve their political interests and that of the rich individuals or the high class (David & Weimer, 2009).The Generational Impact of Social Exclusion Based on ClassResearch shows that social exclusion creates a host of long lasting issues and challenges to th e individuals or groups that have been excluded. This is clearly evident with the recent 99 percent protesters. This long lasting impact is clearly seen in the actions of the Founding Fathers. One of the biggest issues that helped to launch the American Revolution was the argument about taxation without representation (Young, 2000). Of course, the group with the biggest argument was the Founding Fathers. Most of these men were wealthy, upper middle class, and the educated. With all their wealth and education they still had to contend with a society that limited their social mobility were woven into the fabric of the state, which meant they were excluded from the higher echelons of politics and government (Rosenberg, 2008). This exclusion had to be a constant reminder to these men that in reality, they had no voice. Anytime group is excluded from a process it is oppression, and oppression of any kind creates repercussions for all.Research by Iris Marion Young documents that there are five â€Å"faces† of oppression: exploitation, violence, powerlessness, marginalization, and cultural imperialism (Young, 2000). Reading from the concept of the Founding Fathers of America, most likely, they felt powerless, marginalized, and culturally imperialized. By having to pay taxes, and no say in the direction of the government, and the lack representation would surely touch on several types of oppression that Iris Young has identified. Likewise, reports from media titled â€Å"Classism Does NOT Go Both Ways† (2014) provides that that that people and groups who have experienced social exclusion attempt to reconnect at some point. This reconnection can take the form of (a) ingratiating social behavior, (b) attention toward and sensitivity to social cues, and (c) the activation, exaggeration, and even the invention of perceived relationships to important individuals or groups. It is significant to acknowledge and remember this point since it relates to classicism among white males in the United States.After the revolution, it is clear that the Founding Fathers adopted some of the same thoughts and ideas of their perceived oppressors in how they viewed and treated poor whites. Data shows that poor White males were in a challenging situation. Their plight could almost be compared to minority males over the centuries in the United States. Thomas, (2014) writes about the national situation in the post-war mid-1780s. He further documents that the merchants and coastal wholesalers made several efforts to re-establish large-scale trade with the Great Britain. However, the British merchants ceased from offering credit and instead demanded cash (â€Å"specie†). As a result, the wholesale traders insisted on the use of hard money from shopkeepers. Likewise, the shopkeepers saw it wise that the farmers repay their loans in cash with immediate effect (Thomas, 2014). The American farmers had previously been used for loan settling for goods, crops , and labor. Unexpectedly, farmers were matched into debtor courts leading to the seizure of their properties such as land and goods when they couldn’t pay or get confined for unpaid debts. For instance, Thomas (2014) provides that in the farming community of Hampshire County Massachusetts from 1784 to 1786 32.4 percent of the county’s men over sixteen were hauled into court, and many were thrown into jail. The conditions of the jail were deplorable. Prisoners were stockpiled into one cell and were held without proper food, ventilation, many got sick and some died.The Founding Fathers in a quick turn of circumstances went from being the oppressed to the oppressor by determining and controlling who could vote. In turn, poor white men, who fought for liberty to pursue freedom, were given limited freedom. It seems this one historical fact, has been overlooked. The studies that address or discuss the effects of social exclusion of poor white people are significant because it explains the cultural beliefs and ideas as it relates to poor white people in rural and southern areas in the United States (Zweig, 2000). This would also explain how poor whites tend to identify collectively with political referendum that doesn’t support their own economic plight. According to Zweig, (2000), the observations of Molden and Mane that discusses the impacts of social exclusion that makes the excluded find ways to ingratiate themselves with their oppressor; along with paying close attention to social clues; and, the creation of an exaggerated connection. This is clearly the case with poor whites as a collective group.The ruling class has established certain symbolic meanings for being an American, and by following those meanings, you are closely aligned with them. Cone, (1991) writes that from saluting the flag, singing the national anthem, prayers in school, and so forth, the ruling class has established certain social norms that most poor whites can identify and follow. Besides setting up symbolic meanings, the early ruling class defined and created a structure to provide privilege to those they deemed worthy. This was successfully done through government, organizations, and social settings. This aligns with MSS research in which they highlight that the rights and privileges are supported and defined through rules, laws, individual strength and conventions. According to the research, rules and laws are political power instruments the government and politically affluent uses to determine the social structure (Cone, 1991). For instance, gift properties and selling rights that support the privileges of the property-owning class. Furthermore, conventions and customs provides social determinants of structure, for example, Cone (1991) provides that the privilege on the basis of religion, caste, or economic class, personality strength and individual capacity, he observes, are also elements that defines social privilege, for instance, the righ ts accumulating to the wisest most skillful, strongest, or most courageous personalities. According to the research, these rules, conventions, laws, and customs, which support and define privileges and rights of power owners, besides, perpetuate the denial of rights to the section of the community that is underprivileged or unprivileged. As such, the structure developed by the political affluent to foster societal development based on greater functional efficiency, also acts as a barrier that positively eliminates a part of the society from benefiting from the accruing development (Cone, 1991).ConclusionClass affects people from emotional, economic, political, and social level. The attitude of the classists has caused great pain in American politics and governance by dividing the subordinate group members from one another as well as suppressing individual means for personal fulfillment. The impact of class that has resulted in the usual level of collusion between the dominant group members and the subordinate group member has led to means of survival by gaining access to the resources retained by the dominant group. Indeed, class is more than just economics and social dynamics of classism. The patterns of behavior and thinking of classists at personal level promotes classism that results into politics of self-interest and that of the wealthy individuals. While the founding fathers believed that economic and political freedom are twin pillars of democracy, it has promoted a high degree of classism in America. This has led to politics of oppression and personal gains.The founding father of the United States adopted the first written constitution that protected the economy of the country by protecting businesses, personal property, rights of speech and authorizing the Congress to control the commerce of the country. While their contribution cannot be ignored nor disputed, it led to elements of classism that continues to influence the politics and governance of Am erica. In a nutshell, the freedom of classism requires a reversing conditioning process through healing of the class and political oppression wounds, reclaiming the past and present class experiences and sorting present classism to enable the country shape its political identities and foster positive relationships and cohesion among the Americans. References Alvez, J., Duarte, S., & Timney, M. (2008). Human rights theory as a means for incorporating social equity into the public administration curriculum. Journal Of Public Affairs Education, 14(1), 51–66. Arnett, J. (1995).Broad and Narrow Socialization: The Family in the Context of a Cultural Theory. Journal of Marriage and the Family , 57 ( 3 ) , , 617 – 628 Barrow, M. (December, 2014). British Life and Culture. http://resources.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/questions/class.htm. 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Gender Bias in the Religion Essay

The term â€Å"religion† refers to a human spiritual approach which comprises of practices, beliefs, and symbols which have a supernatural quality or significance. This gives a follower of a given religion the meaning to the life experiences in reference to the truth. The question of whether there is gender bias in the religion has triggered many debates and discussions in the past and in the modern society. In order to determine whether there is gender bias in the religion, one requires knowing about the history of the major religions that exist and the state of women and men in the religions. The claims that gender bias exist in the religion emanates from the opinion that women seems to be oppressed in the religion. However, some argue that gender bias has been promoted by application of religious beliefs in a negative way. Every religion has defined roles of both men and women and these differences have played an important role in promoting gender bias. In all the religions, gender bias is linked to the dominant role that men play in the religion and in the society. The religious perception of who men and women are and their role determines is an important factor in determining whether gender bias in the religion exists. In this paper, the question of whether religion bias exists in the religion will focus on some of the most popular religions in the world; Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism and Buddhism. Arguments on why each of these religions is considered to have gender bias will be presented. In addition, the beliefs in the religions that speak against gender bias will be discussed Discussion Gender bias in Christianity Christianity is a religion whereby the religious beliefs and practices are based on the teachings of Jesus Christ. Christians are expected to follow the teachings and the religious beliefs that were taught by Jesus. In Christianity, gender bias is linked to the dominant role of men in the religion and the society as compared to that of a woman. According to the Bible in Genesis1:26-28, both man and woman were created equal and in God’s image. Contemporary criticism of Christianity has been attributed to its gender bias. According to the Bible, the origin of sin is considered to have come from the woman. Some people have used this religious teaching to consider women inferior to men. Another argument that is presented to justify gender bias in Christianity is that almost all the writers of the Holy Scriptures were men, with the exceptions of the book of Eshter. Only a few women participated in the writing of the scriptures. However, women have a strong presence in the Holy Scriptures. These women include, Eshter, Naomi, Deborah, Rachel, Mary Magdalene, and the Virgin Mary. Christian beliefs and attitudes have varied based on the societies within which the Christians have lived. Because Christianity through its holy scriptures prescribe gender roles for both women and men, lack of involvement or minimal involvement of women in church leadership is considered to be gender bias in the religion. Women until the second half of the twentieth century were not allowed to take part in ecclesiastical and pastoral office duties. Only men were allowed to undertake religious duties in these offices. This traditional stance of Christianity still remains influential in some Christian denominations (Gilbert, 2006). For instance, the Eastern Orthodoxy, the Roman Catholic and the Complementarian Protestants still have men dominating the church leadership. Although women may participate in church leadership, their role is minimal as compared to the men’s dominant role. For example, the top leadership positions such as those of bishops, archbishops, and priests are reserved for men while women play a minor role in top leadership. The fact that women have a little role to play in the religions’ top hierarchy is considered to be gender bias in Christianity The role of women in the church is considered to have been overlooked, downplayed or denied throughout the Christian history. The minimal participation of women in religious duties contributed to the domination of men in the society and in government leadership. During the Patristic age, only men were allowed to take the religious teachings offices and sacramental ministry. The Christian society for a long time has not considered it right to have women serve in the church top leadership However, in the early centuries, the Eastern church allowed women to participate in church leadership to a limited extent by ordaining women as deaconesses. The Western church reserved the position of deacon for men only. In the ancient churches such as the Roman Catholic, Coptic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, church leadership continued to be reserved for men only. Up to date, these churches have the position of the pope, bishop, archbishops, and priests strictly reserved for men. Women serve the church as nuns. Another argument that is presented to support gender bias in Christianity is the selection of all Jesus’ apostles as men (The Good News Bible, Mark 3:13-35). Christians believe that Jesus was the son of God who suffered, died, and resurrected for their salvation. Jesus is considered to be the Christians’ model of a virtuous life, a physical incarnation of God, and a revealer of God’s message. The New Testament gospel is a written account of Jesus life. According to Christianity, Jesus had twelve disciples who were all men whom he appointed to be the leaders of the church. This is viewed as the reason why church leadership is often reserved for men. Because priests represent Jesus, then having male priests is considered to be right. Women are not ordained as priests in Christian churches which still hold the traditional stance of having church leadership received for women. Gender bias in Christianity is attributed to lack of ordination of women as priests. Women can only work as nuns but cannot be elevated to the positions of priests, bishops or pope in religious hierarchy (Roman Catholic). In the ancient Christian societies, only men served as priests. In early Christianity, the religious law makers or the Pharisees applied religious laws that discriminated women . According to the Good News Bible in John 8:1-6,the Pharisees brought an a woman to Jesus who they claimed had committed adultery. According to the Pharisees, the law of Moses required them to stone her to death. Jesus told them that the only one to stone the woman would be the one who had never committed a sin. None of the Pharisees stoned the woman. Jesus showed mercy to the woman due to the injustice that was being done to her since no punishment was being given to the woman’s sexual partner. Apart from such treatment against women by the traditional Jewish societies, rules that were put in place portrayed women as inferior to men. For example, men were not supposed to speak to women publicly. Modern Christianity teaches against such treatment based on Jesus’ teachings against the discrimination of women. Christianity advocates for men as the head of the family (McGrath, 2006). A woman who was created from man is meant to be a companion and a helper to a man, a belief that has made man to be viewed as superior to a woman . The application of this belief has promoted gender bias in the church and in a Christian society. The superiority of man over a woman which is supported by the scriptures has continued to influence the perception of women. The doctrine of Holy trinity in Christianity has been used to argue that men are the best suited in representing Jesus who is the son of God, who is also considered to be â€Å"Him† just like in Islam and Judaism. Although Christianity has been criticized for promoting gender bias, it has also spoken openly against ill treatment of women. In the story of creation, man and woman were created differently but they were supposed to work together as equals. A man and a woman in a marriage are meant to love and respect each other (The Good News Bible, Ephesians 5:31-33). The early Christian society which discriminated women (the Pharisees) was criticized by Jesus. In addition, Jesus preached against injustice on women and showed compassion towards them. Christianity is said to acknowledge the important role of a woman because Jesus who is the Christians’ model of a virtuous life accepted women, including those who were seen to be sinners. In the early church, women were depicted to be teachers, leaders, and apostles (Rebecca, 1997). The New Testament through the letter of Paul to Timothy preaches against discrimination. Apostle Paul asks Christians to treat each other well with respect, and the younger women with absolute purity. In Galatians 3:38 the Bible states that â€Å"there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus† . These teachings oppose roles that promote gender bias. The church has continued to promote the important value of women through the Virgin Mary. However, the issue of gender bias in the church has led to the formation of women’s movements with the aim of changing the role of women in the church. For example, the â€Å"Christian feminism† movement is trying to challenge some traditional Christian interpretations of the Holy Scriptures which define the role of women. The modern debate on gender has promoted Christian feminism and Christian egalitarianism arguments. Gender bias in Judaism Judaism is based on the Hebrew Bible which is also referred to as the Torah. The Hebrew Bible is the first section of Tanakh and it comprises of the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deutronomy. Some Jewish laws are not written in the Torah. Those that have been derived from the textual hints are referred to as Oral Torah. The religion just like in Christianity has defined roles for men and women (Elyse, 2008). Women are not allowed to become religious leaders in Judaism. In addition, priests are supposed to marry pure women (Leviticus 21:13-14). The Talmud passage in Reboot 61a-b indicate that priests should not marry a woman who is barren unless he has a wife and children. A barren woman is considered to be a â€Å"faithless wife†. Women do not participate in church leadership although various women such as Miriam (prophetess) and Rachel are recognized in the religion. In the traditional Jewish societies, the women were allowed to play the roles of prophetesses and Nazirites despite their minimal role in the religious matters. Jewish women were expected to participate in religious rituals. Orthodox Judaism portrays gender bias when women were exempted from studying some advanced Jewish texts although the evolutions of the orthodox society has resulted changes in such practices. Traditional Orthodox rabbis in the contemporary society oppose the change of Judaism accepted norms of observance to promote gender equality. These changes include the modern Orthodox Judaism support for more advanced education for Jewish women. Furthermore, the issue of whether women should study Talmud is still controversial in modern Orthodoxy. In traditional Orthodox Judaism, women are not allowed to serve as witnesses in a rabbinical court. The traditional exclusion of women testimony as advocated by Judaism is seen as discrimination against women. Jewish women are not ordained as rabbis, although rabbi – like positions for Orthodox women have now been created despite many followers opinion that ordaining women as rabbis goes against the Jewish law. The Torah in the book of Exodus 21:10 support polygamy which is considered to be gender bias against women (Rabinowitz and Harvey, 2007). Despite the gender bias in Judaism, several women are recognized as role models in the scriptures. Modern Judaism has now allowed active participation of women in reading the Torah, serving as a cantor, and being part of the Minyan. Gender bias in Conservative Judaism has triggered changes that aim at including mixed seating and promoting synagogue corporate leadership. Reform Judaism now promotes equality of women and men, encouraging women to participate in religious rituals earlier reserved for men. Gender bias in Islam Islamic teachings are based on the teaching of Prophet Muhammad, where the Muslims are required to observe the five pillars of Islam. Theologically, Islam promotes equality of men and women. The Muslim society however is seen to establish a distinction between men and women. According to the Islam teachings in Al-Baqarah, 2:228 â€Å"and women shall have rights, similar to the rights against them, according to what is equitable†, women are equal to men. However, the different status and responsibilities for men and women in Islam depends on the religious interpretations. According to the Quran 49:13, Islam promotes equal treatment for both men and women (Stowasser, 1996). Gender bias in Islam is attributed to the Sharia law due to its promotion of practices that are to the disadvantage of the women. The Sharia law prevents the mixture of both men and women at the places of worship and the traditional interpretations of Islam are considered to allow polygamy for men. This is seen by some as against the equality of both men and women. Muslim women are not allowed to take religious leadership positions in Islam and a suggestion for women to become imams is criticized and disputed by many. Medieval Muslim women had problems accessing religious education as compared to the men. Women cannot be allowed to lead mixed prayers in the mosque since worshipping at the mosque is done with women and men in separate places. The women’s’ freedom of movement and travel is limited by the Sharia law, and women should only travel together with a male relative (Mumisa, 2002). For instance, the prohibition of women to drive in some Muslim societies is considered as the Sharia law discrimination against women. Although this was a move to promote a woman’s safety, Muslim women are sometimes prohibited from driving. Some Muslim women have been discriminated against due to extremist Islam beliefs. For example, in Afghanistan women have in the past been denied access to education and job opportunities. Islamic law has also undermined the involvement of women in leadership and it promotes gender –biased inheritance rules which are considered to oppress women . When giving evidence in a court according to Sharia law, a women’s evidence is counted as half that of a man’s evidence. Islam support polygamy and Shiite Islam is criticized for allowing mota or Sigheh where men can exercise a temporary marriage, and women are expected to submit to such practices. Muslim men are allowed by the Sharia law to marry non – Muslim women, while the same does not apply for Muslim women. Muslim women under Sharia law should not interact with men who are not their relatives unless in presence of a male relative. This is viewed as discouraging social interaction of women with other members of the society (Safi, 2003). Despite the ill treatment of women in Muslim societies that promote Sharia law, Islam promotes equal rights and dignity for both men and women. It has been argued that gender bias is linked to Islam not because the religion is biased but due to the practices that exist in Muslim societies. Islam provides women with an equal status to that of men in theory and in practice. The women are assured of financial security through inheritance whether it’s during marriage or in case of divorce and widowhood. Islam recognizes a woman’s’ role as a wife and as a mother, and it does not prohibit her from seeking employment. Islamic teaching defines men and women as recipient of† divine breath† due to their creation with the same human-spiritual nature and both men and women are acknowledged by Allah as His trustees on earth (Yvonne et al, 2006). Gender bias in Buddhism Buddhism is a religion whose teachings are based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. Buddhism comprises of two branches, Mahayana and Theravada. Buddhists uphold the four noble truths (Eliot, 2003). Women Buddhists can easily integrate with other members of the society and are given an honorable place in the society. Buddhist women even in the ancient times were able to access religious knowledge and participate in religious ceremonies. However, womens’ religious roles differ from those of men. For example, religious women are not able to perform religious duties similar to those of the monks. Buddhism teaches that a marriage is a contract between equals. Gender bias is portrayed in the doctrine of Karma and rebirth in Buddhism which supports inherent male superiority. Furthermore, gender bias in Buddhism can be seen in the domination of men in religious leadership. Though Buddhist nuns can hold important religious positions, they are categorized as a group than can occupy a niche in the religious realm and secular world. Buddhism considers women as religiously insufficient hence they have to depend on men to make merit. The religion allows multiple spouses for a man and only one for a woman Both men and women in Buddhism are able to realize nirvana equally, although the paths of realizing it vary. Gender equality is promoted in Mahayana Buddhism since it allows the ordination of women to serve in religious duties as Bhikkhunis. Bhikkhunis are also referred to as Buddhist nuns. Buddhism promotes spiritual equality for both men and women a belief that prevents supremacy of males in the religion. This had Buddha acknowledge the spiritual potential of both women and men. For instance, the order of Bhikkhunis or nuns represents the important role of a woman in Buddhism. The Sasana is comprised of Bhikkus (Monks), Bhikkhunis (Nuns), laymen, and laywomen. This ensures that women are not segregated from religious activities. Unlike in Hinduism, funeral rites in Buddhism can be conducted by a widow or a daughter hence the birth of daughters only is not considered as a misfortune. However, male offsprings are preferred in Buddhist societies due to the ideology of male superiority. Gender bias in Hinduism The most authoritative text of Hinduism is the Vedas. The position that is given to both men and women depend on the specific text and context of the Vedas. For example, positive reference to women is given in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, while restriction on the role of women is given by the Manu smriti (Michaels, 2004). Gender bias in Hinduism is seen in the religious practices. For example, the birth of daughters with no sons becomes lamentation due to the importance of a male offspring in funeral rites. When a father dies in a Hindu community, only male offspring are allowed to assure a family of its happiness by carrying out funeral rites. A wife without a son is therefore superseded by a second or third wife. Male children in this case are highly regarded unlike the female children. The religious practice of Sati is criticized for discriminating and giving harsh treatment to women. The sati in Hinduism encourages the immolation of women after their husband’s death. Although women willingly take part in sati, many cases result from societal inducement or compulsion. Examples of women who are mentioned in Hindu Holy Scriptures to participate in Sati Vasudeva’s wives (M Bh. Mausalaparvan 7. 18) and Madri (M Bh. Adiparvan 95)). The Hindu religious practices promote discrimination of females due to the culture of payment of dowry, which makes female children to be viewed as a burden to the family. The religious customs of having the bride’s family pay dowry to the groom’s family has had many female children looked down upon with cases of female infanticide being witnessed . In Manu VIII 416-417,the ownership of property by women is restricted and alienation of Hindu widows from the society has also been attributed to female infanticide. Marriage of females at a very early age and denial of women to marry again after the death of a husband are gender bias religious practices that are still witnessed in some Hindu societies. Apart from the above arguments that support gender bias against women in Hinduism, the religion supports the participation of women in religious rituals. In addition, both men and women can learn about the sacred texts of the religion and women have been appreciated due to the representation of some deities in the religion as females (Williams, 2005). Conclusion Whether there is gender bias in the religion is an issue that has triggered heated debates from the people all over the world, especially the religious leaders. In various societies, gender bias has been witnessed. While some gender bias has been attributed to the religious beliefs and practices of the society members, some bias has been attributed to the culture of the people and not the religion. Various arguments have been presented to prove whether there is gender bias in the religions that exist. Some arguments support the notion that there is gender bias in the religion. In all religions, the beliefs, traditions and values that are advocated for greatly influence the way of life of the followers. Therefore,the role that different genders play in the society and in fulfilling religious duties are linked to the religious beliefs and traditions upheld by the members of a given society. This is why gender bias that exists in the society is related to the religion. References Eliot, C. 2003. Hinduism and Buddhism: A Historical Sketch, vol. I (Reprint ed. ), Munshiram Manoharlal Elyse G. 2008. The Women’s Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Jewish Lights Publishing Gilbert, B. 2006. Beyond Sex Roles: What the Bible says about a Womans Place in Church and Family, Baker Academic McGrath, E. 2006. Christianity: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing Michaels, A. 2004. Hinduism: Past and Present (5th ed. ), Princeton University Press Mumisa, M. 2002. Islamic Law: Theory & Interpretation, Amana Publications Rabinowitz, I. , and Harvey, W. 2007 â€Å"Torah. † Encyclopaedia Judaica. Ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 20. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA Rebecca, G. 1997. Good News for Women: A Biblical picture of gender equality, Baker books Safi, O. 2003. Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender, and Pluralism. Oneworld Publications. Stowasser, F. 1996. Women in the Qur’an, Traditions, and Interpretation, Oxford University Press The Good News Bible. 1976. American Bible Society, Harper Collins Publishers Williams, P. 2005. Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, Routledge, London & New York Yvonne, H. , Kathleen, M. , and Jane, S. 2006. Muslim Women in America: The Challenge of Islamic Identity Today. Oxford University Press

Ethical Egoism and Capitalism Essay

Ethical egoism, in general, is suggestive that every individual would act according to his or her own interests. According to the proponents of ethical egoism, every individual or any group will always be pushed to promote one’s own personal interests regardless of how others would view their decisions. However, a personal interest is viewed as a long-term commitment based on the ideas presented by the proponents of ethical egoism. Here, personal interest does not only cover the basic wants of an individual, but rather the needs of an individual which will benefit the individual or the groups for a longer period (â€Å"Ethical Egoism,† 2007). On the other hand, capitalism is an economic worldview that promotes the accumulation of capital for a long-term period. Capitalism as an economic thought is largely individualistic, and is most of the time focused on the individual who plays as the main player in all capitalist endeavors. As such, the proponents of capitalism greatly believe that every individual or group of individuals is always in pursuit of attaining their goals and interests (Hooker, 1996). Ethical egoism and capitalism, though are two different world perspectives have a distinct connection. In some ways, ethical egoism has widely influenced the growth and the process at which capitalism works. Both ideas are centered on pursuing and fulfilling the individual’s personal interests. And as such, the tenets of ethical egoism have become one of the most motivating factors in the capitalist world. Epicurus had his own idea involving ethical egoism. Epicurus defined self interest based on the pleasure that fulfillment of such self-interest can give. According to Epicurus, pleasure is only attained whenever the idea of pain is quickly vanquished. Hence, one must be ultimately with his or herself in order to become happy and fulfilled. And as such, he added that to live in a pleasant way, individuals must adjust to life in a prudent and honest way (Epicurus, 2002, 278). In accordance to this, Epicurus also added that individuals, while fulfilling their needs and self-interests must also learn to become self sufficient, stable and not reliant on chances, and must be complete (â€Å"Ethical Egoism,† 2007). These characteristics suggest that an individual, while being self sufficient, must only focus on the immediate and basic needs rather than giving up to the pleasures and unnecessary wants. As such, if people have become lured to unneeded pleasure, their desires will not be fulfilled and satiated, and will only cause pain and discontent amongst the people. While Epicurus suggested that the ultimate test for pleasure is the elimination of all causes of pain, he also concluded that reason and virtue are two of the most important factors in attaining happiness. As such, rational choices must be made in order to be fulfilled. Any wrong and irrational choice committed will cause discontent and unrest to the people, thus should be avoided (Younkins, â€Å"Epicurus on Freedom and Happiness,† 2007) Capitalism, on the other hand, is also founded on almost the same tenets. Capitalism is also geared towards achieving fulfillment which can be attained through the accumulation of capital goods, which capitalist entrepreneurs desire. Like how each tenet of ethical egoism is defined, the proponents of capitalism also strongly believe that a capitalist is always in search of satisfaction and fulfillment, which can only be achieved if his or her self-interests are being quenched. Like ethical egoists, capitalists are also focused on the attainment of individual satisfaction. And as such, every single capitalist puts a lot of effort into giving an assurance that each of his own capitalist endeavors is being realized and put into effect. Profit, as the main goal of the capitalists, is the counterpart of â€Å"pleasure† for an ethical egoist. While in ethical egoism, pleasure is only attained by eliminating sources of pain and discontent, profit is being considered as the main source of motivation and happiness for capitalists. In this light, profit is obtained by capitalists through the sheer use of intellect, competitive skills, and thorough reasoning in order to equip themselves in a tough competition among other and fellow capitalists. In addition to this, another character that links capitalism with ethical egoism, is the distinctive pursuit of morality behind the two ideologies. While ethical egoism greatly regards moral and righteousness for the attainment of their goals, in the capitalist perspective, capitalism is an avenue wherein moral is an imperative towards the creation of social system that will help realize the goals of a capitalist. Capitalism, hence is a system that encourages the practice of enhancing self-determination and giving priority to moral agencies for the system to function well (Younkins, 2007). Capitalism is also based establishing a rigid set of moral values. Capitalism is a system that operates on a strictly governed set of institutions that ensures that each move and actions are always watched. And in order to maintain the balance amongst the players in the system, every action made can be open to reward or sanctions. In addition to this, self-interests within a capitalist system are attained by valuing the balance between the needs and material gains. And as such, every value system and social norms are always honored in within the capitalist arena (Cilliers, 2008, pp. 30-31). In a way, the quench for self-interest and pursuit for material wealth are always related within the economic system. Pursuing any kind of self-interest and wishing to attain material wealth are always tied to the economic order, and such, the goal and the means must be properly coordinated. The capitalist system works in hand with the ideals of the ethical egoism in such a way that, both ideologies will suggest that in any kind of self-interest, one must always be able to determine the more prioritized aspect of the individual’s well-being. In both the underlying tenets in capitalism and ethical egoism, self-interest plays a huge role. Both of the ideologies suggest that, self-interest is one thing that should always be satiated by any individual. Failure to attain this will make human beings discontented for their lives, and such will always push to gain more. While in ethical egoism, the individual’s pursuit is directed towards eliminating his or her source of pain in order to attain pleasure; in capitalism, the individual’s self-interest is directed in gaining profit which he or she can attain by eliminating competition or by triumphantly overcoming any kind of competition that comes in his or her way. However, there are certain limitations that must be taken consideration in this pursuit of either self-interest or profit. As stated in ethical egoism, an individual must know how to control his or her pleasures. The excess of wanting too much material wealth will eventually establish discontent, unhappiness and pain on the individual. This goes the same in capitalism – every individual must learn how to control his or pursuit of gaining more profit that how it is supposed to work. If an individual or the whole society believes that they deserve more than what is rightful for them, the society will be in chaos. And as such, the people will become rather more dissatisfied, and order will be more oblivious to the minds of the people. The parallelism of the tenets between ethical egoism and capitalism shows the distinct comparison and similarity of the ideas contributing to both ideologies, with self-interest at the core of ethical egoism and capitalism. In essence, self-interest is what drives both ethical egoism and capitalist to achieve its purpose. Ethical egoism shares its influence with capitalism in such a way that ethical egoism shows that there is something that an individual wishes to attain. Alongside these wants and needs, an individual is ought to follow certain measures in order to fulfill his or purpose. And most importantly, there should always be limits to what an individual should wish to have. Excessively wanting something, in within either the tenets of ethical egoism and capitalism, will always be detrimental to the status of every individual or in any society. References Cilliers, J. (2008). Global Capitalism – Local Values. St. Gallen Symposium. Switzerland: University of St. Gallen. Epicurus. â€Å"Principle Doctrines. † Classics of Political and Moral Philosophy. Ed. Steven M. Cahn. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. â€Å"Ethical Egoism. † (2007). Center for Ethical Deliberation. Retrieved October 2, 2008, from http://www. mcb. unco. edu/ced/perspectives/egoism. cfm Hooker, R. (1996). Capitalism. The European Enlightenment. Retrieved October 2, 2008, from http://www. wsu. edu/~dee/GLOSSARY/CAPITAL. HTM Younkins, E. W. (2007). Epicurus on Freedom and Happiness. La Quebecois Libre. Retrieved October 2, 2008, from http://www. quebecoislibre. org/07/071111-4. htm Younkins, E. W. (2007). Capitalism: The Only Moral Social System. La Quebecois Libre. Retrieved October 3, 2008, from http://www. quebecoislibre. org/07/071111-4. htm

Discussion 4- Economics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion 4- Economics - Assignment Example According to Hugger (2008), the Optimum Currency Area (OCA) criteria can examine the feasibility of adopting a common currency by NAFTA (p. 23). Canada and Mexico have high levels of intra-regional trade and openness. According to OCA criteria, open economies reduce the costs of a common currency and reduce asymmetric shocks. From interest rate correlations, U.S-Canada monetary policies are similar. NAFTA countries are more similar in terms of GDP per capita growth, trade openness and tax to GDP ratios. Given all its benefits, a common currency is feasible for NAFTA. However, like the Euro, member countries must consider political reasons related to adopting a common currency. Theoretical threats of the Euro to the US Dollar in the international trade mean that a common monetary union in North America would allow the United States to compete on the same level ground with the Euro. Grubel (2000) points out that a single currency in North America would bring benefits to these countries in terms of reduced costs of foreign exchange, decreased interest rates and exchange rate risks. Reduced exchange rates would favor North America in facilitating and expanding international trade (p.

What is intellectual culture and how do college students and teachers Essay

What is intellectual culture and how do college students and teachers might promote it - Essay Example Culture on the other hand relates to the way of life of a certain group of individuals that possess similar characteristics in the manner they approach issues or behave. From the college concept, intellectual culture will therefore entail developing culture that ensures value as well as supporting an intellectual approach to problems while it may also imply adopting concepts as well as methods comprising of cultures agreeable from an intellectual perspective. College students and teachers might promote intellectual culture through overcoming stereotypes, advocating on team work and adhering to rules. Overcoming stereotypes certainly an essential factor to ensure achievement of intellectual culture. Teachers knowing the students and understanding their academic capabilities while students understand their teachers is essential. Overcoming these stereotypes is essential as all parties become well positioned without barriers to effective learning that as a result ensures creation of an intellectual culture where the students and teachers work towards a common goal of academic excellence. Other than overcoming stereotypes, enhancing team work is an essential factor in creating intellectual culture within a College institution. Creation of team work ensures innovation, developing of learning approaches and critical thinking. Working together as a team ensures team members develop their learning approaches relating to how they tackle questions relating to various questions as they learn from their peers (Ferrari 79). Innovation is also enhanced among team members owing to the fact that a team finds it easier to start a project as opposed to an individual. Since group work involves discussions, and analysis of projects through presenting ideas or brainstorming, critical thinking is ensured among the group members. While overcoming stereotypes and teamwork prove essential in ensuring promoting intellectual culture, adhering to rules

Marketing (brand management question) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Marketing (brand management question) - Essay Example A classic example will be DHL. This company won the Platinum Award (Airfreight / Courier Service category) in the Superbrand 2005. Its brand statement is to enhance the customers' businesses by offering express delivery and logistics solutions based on strong local expertise combined with a vast global network. They keep to their words and thus winning glory in the industry. Different from the business markets, consumer markets will need more product features and advertising for their product. The audience for consumer markets branding involve the general public, in which the variance of needs and desires are greater than a business markets. Dell Computer is the example of this category of branding. It manages to position itself as a customize personal computer provider. This is collaborated by its successful supply chain management which makes it its brand identity. A "branded house" means a company which itself is a brand. The products come under this company will be the subset of the main brand. In branding, it gains level of acceptance and importance in short time due to the previous identification with the parent brand. Take for example, Hewlett Packard. This brand name covers products from laptops, desktops, Palmtops to even printers. All the products carry the same brand HP though they have names and are under different product category. It enters the market of palm tops easily despite the effort by Palm Plc. In contrary to that, a "house of brand" would be a company that markets a range of brands. A classic will be the Procter and Gamble (P&G). It comprises a lot of brands from different product categories such as Duracell the battery, Pantene the shampoo, Olay the beauty products, Mr. Clean the household cleaner, Braun the oral care products and many more. 3. Discuss the risks and benefit of brand extension. Research detailed examples of each. The benefit for a company to use a successful for brand extension could help it to enter a new product category. Examples are like the Fairy brand (Unilever) which extended from washing up liquid to washing powder and Lucozade which extends from a children's health drink to sports drink. This brought advantages to the company as it does not post doubt on the customers which presume the product as a newly launched products. It sustains the trust on a single brand to an extended product under the same brand. However, a failure in doing so could cause damage. Firstly, it is the dilution effect of the brand by products. The example is like when people talk about Fairy, it is not just only a washing liquid anymore. Secondly, it posts difficulties to connect with the parent brand names. Imagine if Colgate is marketing a candy product. It will be a disaster to the brand as the messages from the brand is inconsistent. 4. Discuss factors involved in successful brand differentiation. The key factors that could drive a successful brand differentiation are Desire for sustainable brand differentiation The company and its employees would need to have the same vision on brand differentiation as both are involve in making the strategy a success. Without management support or

Contract and Tort Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Contract and Tort - Case Study Example The court recognized the right only when there is a remedy on the principle Ubi remedium ibi jus, which means where there is remedy there is right. One had to search for the proper remedy that suits his right then only he could succeed. If there was no remedy there was no right and there is no case. By passage of time the complicated litigations coming before the courts necessitated to change the concept of law. Accordingly the concept of law was changed as Ubi jus ibi remedium, which means where there is right there is remedy. This concept enable the courts to see that if there is a right existing then it will decide what is the remedy. Right of the litigant is given prominence over the remedies to protect the rights effectively. Under the new concept the courts have provided a remedy whenever there has been unjustifiable interference with the rights of a person. When the law of contract is read strictly, we find the rights are restricted to its terms and conditions. The law recognizes the rights that are specifically created by a contract and ignores if that right is not covered in the terms of contract. And such rights created by the contract are limited to only the parties to the contract, a third party do not derive any right against any of the parties to the contract even though the loss is caused to him due to the negligence. It provides relief to the parties to the contact only, that too it is limited to the extent of monitory or economic loss. The law of contract see whether there is any breach of contract by either of the parties to the contract but non else. The remedies in law of contract are strictly connected with the terms and conditions of the contract entered into by the parties. Once all the terms and condition of the contract are fulfilled no cause of action arises to either parties, even though any inconvenience caused due to unjustifiable interference by the other party with in the terms and conditions. But the law says that no person can interfere unjustifiably with the rights of the other person. If that happens the court provides remedy not under the law of contract but under the law of tort. This is how the tort overcomes the restriction involved in strict reading of the law of contract. The law fills up the gap in the law of contract mostly in cases of negligence of one of parties to the contract due to which the other part causes mental agony or physical or mental loss in addition to the economic loss. Some time the party who is not a party to the contract too subjects to the mental agony or physical loss due to the negligence act of the any other parson. In certain situations the courts cannot find any remedy in the law of contract, but the law of tort fills up this gap and provides the remedy. Contract and Tort inter relationship[9]: Contract and Tort have interrelationship as far as the remedies are concerned. Plaintiffs are at a liberty to choose the remedy either in law of contract or in Tort. The law of contract is specific and remedies under contract are time consuming and costly when compared to the Tort. As discussed above sometimes remedy cannot be found in contact in such conditions the remedy lies in the Tort. Where a dispute consists of ingredients of both contract and Tort as well then the plaintiff is at a liberty to choose the action either under contract or under Tort. It means that mere existence of all the ingredients of Contract do